Fig. 4

Multilevel Generalized Structural Equation Modeling (MGSEM) results. a. Variables in the dark, medium, and light gray boxes are typical, semi-, and privately owned public spaces, respectively; b. Red and green arrows indicate positive and negative effects; c. Arrow thickness reflects significance level: P < 0.10 (*), P < 0.05 (**), P < 0.01 (***); d. All continuous variables are standardized