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Table 1 Literature review of individual studies (cohort and case–control) investigating association between residential proximity to polluted sites and reproductive outcome, order by year of publication

From: Systematic literature review of reproductive outcome associated with residential proximity to polluted sites

References, year

Design, country

Reproductive outcome

Polluted sites

Residential exposure

Confunder factors

Analysis/stratification

Findings

Case–control studies

Geschwind et al. 1992 [37]

Population-based, case–control study;

New York State

1983–1984 USA

All congenital anomalies combined;

Specific defects

Nervous system, Musculoskeletal, system, integument system, oral cleft, digestive system, chromosomal anomalies, syndrome

Hazardous waste site

Maternal’s exposure defined with exposure risk index that incorporated distance from and the hazard ranking score for each hazardous waste site within 1-mile radius of birth residence

Maternal age, race, education, complication during pregnancy, parity, population density, sex of child

Unconditional linear logistic regression

Results suggested small, statistically significant additional risk for birth defects with maternal residential proximity to toxic waste sites

Shaw et al. 1992a [23]

Population-based, case–control study

Five-county San Francisco Bay Area 1983–1985

USA

All congenital anomaly

Specific defects

Central nervous system

Eye, Ear, heart/circulatory, respiratory, oral clefts, gastrointestinal, genitourinary, skin, musculoskeletal

Birth outcome

Low birth weight

Environmental contamination

Landfill and dumpsites and HWS and Industry…

Exposure defined as Mother’s residence at the time of delivery in a census tract with one or more sites with documented environmental contamination

Maternal race, maternal age, child’s sex, child’s birth order, multiple birth child, gestational age, season of conception, prenatal care

Logistic regression/ linear regression used with LBW

No excess risks found for reduced birth weight or all congenital malformations, combined. However, the results noted elevated risk for heart/ circulatory defects in offspring of mothers who resided in census tracts with sites with evidence of potential human exposure

Sosniak et al. 1994 [30]

Population-based case–control study in 48 states

US

All congenital anomalies combined

Birth outcomes

Low and very low birth weight, infant deaths, fetal deaths

NPL site

Mother exposure defined as a distance of 1 mile or less from nearest NPL site from zip code centroids of maternal residences at delivery

Prenatal care, smoking, drinking and illicit drug use status, working history.

Education, income, age at pregnancy, and sex of the child

Univariate and multivariate analyses were performed

Maternal residential proximity to NPL sites not associated with adverse pregnancy outcomes including: Congenital anomalies, low and very low birth weight, infant deaths, fetal deaths

Goldberg et al. 1995 [54]

Population-based, case–control study

Montreal (1979–1989)

Canada

LBW, VLBW

Preterm births,

Small-for-gestational age (less than or equal to the third percentile weight for gestational age)

Landfill site

Defined three exposure zones representing areas proximal and distal to a municipal soil id waste landfill site. High exposure zone divided into two subzones to account for prevailing winds

Mother’s age, education level, marital status, usual language spoken, season of birth, sex of the newborn

Unconditional logistic regression

Among births to mothers who resided adjacent to the landfill: Significant elevated risk of LBW and no-significant elevated risk of small for gestational age. But no significant positive association were observe for PTB or for VLBW

Croen et al. 1997a [35]

Population-based, case–control study

California 1989–1991

US

Specific defects

NDt, conotruncal heart, and oral cleft defects

Hazardous waste site

Maternal exposure defined as living during periconceptional period in either:

 In census tract contained one or mmore waste site—within 1 mile or less of one or more sites

Sex of baby, Maternal age

Race/ethnicity, Maternal education, Family income

Periconceptional employment status

Alcohol use, Smoking

Vitamin use, Education

Multivariate analyses using unconditional logistic regression

No increased risks for congenital defects for a maternal residence in a census tract with one or more waste sites, but some association was noted between a maternal residence within ¼ mile of an NPL site and risk for NTD and conotruncal heart defects in offspring

Dolk et al. 1998 [52]

Population-based case–control study

Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, UK

Non-chromosomal congenital anomalies

Specific defects

NDt, cardiac septa, Anomalies of great arteries and veins, central nervous system, oral defect…

Landfill site

Within each study area, a 0–3 km “proximate” zone was defined around each landfill site with hazardous waste.

This zone was compared with a 3–7 km “distant” zone.

Socioeconomic status and maternal age

Logistic and related binomial regression models were used

Results indicated significant small excess risk of non-chromosomal defects in offspring among women who lived near hazardous waste landfill sites

Elevated odds ratios were also found for specific defects

Marshall et al. 1997a [38]

Population-based, case–control study

18 counties in New York State, 1983–1986

USA

Specific defects

Central nervous system and musculoskeletal system defects

HWS and industrial sites

Mother’s exposure defined as maternal living at delivery within 1 mile of industrial facilities that release specific air emissions (TRI) or to waste sites with specific contaminants

prenatal care, mother’s education, mother’s age, mother’s race, total previous births, trimester prenatal care initiated child’s sex, urban–rural status (Population density)

Unconditional logistic regression model

No increased risk noted between women living in areas with a medium or high probability of exposure to chemicals from hazardous waste sites and CNS and musculoskeletal birth defects in offspring; however, association seen between living in close proximity to industrial facilities with emissions of soil vents or metals and CNS defect

Orr et al. 2002a [12]

Case–control study

1983–1988

California

(24 counties)

All birth defects combined

Specific defects

NDT, MUS defects, CNS defects, integumental defects, heart or circulatory defectsoral cleft defects, and conotruncal heart defects

Waste site

Exposed defined as maternal address at child’s birth in census tract with one or more National Priority List (NPL) hazardous waste sites

sex,

Maternal age, Racial/ethnic group, Prenatal care

Birth outcome

Logistic regression model

Strongest association observed between a maternal residence in a census tract with one or more NPL sites and birth defects in offspring

Vriljheld et al. 2002a [1]

Population-based case–control study

Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, UK

chromosomal and Non-chromosomal anomaly

Specific defects

NDT, cardiac septal defects, malformations of the great arteries and veins

Landfill site

Within each study area, a 0–3 km “proximate” zone was defined around each landfill site with hazardous waste

This zone was compared with a 3–7 km “distant” zone

Maternal age and socioeconomic status

Logistic regression models were used

The result noted that there is little evidence for a relation between risk of congenital anomaly in proximate

relative to distant zones and hazard potential of landfill sites as classified by the expert panel

Vriljheld et al. 2002 [51]

Population-based case–control study

Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, UK

Chromosomal congenital anomalies

Specific defect

Down’s syndrome, non-Down’s syndrome

Landfill site

Within each study area, a 0–3 km “proximate” zone was defined around each landfill site with hazardous waste

This zone was compared with a 3–7 km “distant” zone

Adjusted for maternal age and socioeconomic status, study area, year of birth

Logistic and related binomial regression models were used

An increased risk of chromosomal anomalies with a maternal residence near hazardous waste landfill sites was noted. Whereas, risk did not decline consistently with increasing distance from sites

Boyle et al. 2004 [41]

Population-based cohort and case–control studies; Eastern Region of Ireland births, 1986–1990

Great Britain

All congenital anomalies combined

Landfill site

Municipal landfill sites within 3 km (and other distances) of district electoral divisions; distance of case and control addresses from landfill sites

  

Living near a municipal landfill site was not found a risk factor for congenital malformations

Malik et al. 2004 [31]

Population-based case–control study

Dallas County, 1979–1984

USA

Live births diagnosed with congenital heart disease at any age

Hazardous waste site

Mothers’ exposure defined as residence at delivery within ¼ and 1 mile of hazardous waste site

Stratification by CHD category

Chi-square and Mantel Haenszel analysis used to estimate odds ratios

Small, but statistically significant, additional risk (20%)for congenital heart disease among offspring of women who lived near a hazardous waste site (1 mile)

Yauck et al. 2004 [22]

Population-based case–control study; Milwaukee, Wisconsin

1997–1999

USA

Congenital heart defect (CHD) among older women

HWS and Industrial facilities

Mother’s exposure defined as address at delivery within 1.32 miles of waste sites and industrial facilities with emissions of trichloroethylene

Race/ethnicity, cigarette use, prenatal care received, month of pregnancy prenatal care began, pregnancy-associated hypertension, gestational diabetes

Backward stepwise Logistic regression

Maternal residential proximity to waste sites and industries with TCE emissions associated with CHD in offspring of older but not younger women

Brender et al. 2006a [32]

Population-

based case–control study

Texas, 1996–2000

US

Specific defects

Live births and

fetal deaths with cleft palate without cleft lip; cleft lip without or with cleft palate; isolated oral cleft

HWS and Industries sites

Residence at delivery (and during the periconceptional period) within 1 mile of NPL or state hazardous waste site and/or within 1 mile of industries

Maternal race/ethnicity, education, and tobacco use

Logistic regression used to obtain

odds ratios

Maternal residential proximity to industries might be associated with oral clefts in births to older mothers (>35 years)

Mueller et al. 2007a [40]

Population-based case–control study in Washington 1987–2001 USA

All fetal death

2 timing of fetal death:

−<28 weeks (early)

−≥28 weeks gestation (late) excluded those with gestational age <20 weeks

Hazardous waste site

Measured straight-line distances in miles between the mother’s residence at the time delivery and the nearest hazardous waste site

Maternal age, prenatal smoking status, and number of prior pregnancies

Stratified analyses using Mantel-Haenszel risk estimators multivariable logistic regression

Fetal death not associated with maternal residential proximity to hazardous waste sites

Kuehn et al. 2007a [34]

Population-based case–control study in Washington State, 1987–2001

US

Any congenital malformation

Specific defects

CNS, GI, Heart, Reproductive/urogenital, Musculoskeletal,

Ears/eyes/nose/Respiratory/circulatory, Chromosomal

Skin, Other Midline

Hazardous Waste site

Distance of women’s residence at time birth from hazardous waste sites; proximity defined as various distances up to 5 miles;

Maternal and paternal age, maternal smoking and alcohol consumption, parity, gravidity, prior fetal death, race/ethnicity, maternal education, county of residence, medical insurance status, marital status, parental employment urban vs. rural residence, census tract median income, and census tract population density

Multivariable logistic regression

An increased risk of congenital malformations among offspring of women living in close proximity of hazardous waste sites;

Moreover, associations for malformations stronger with sites in urban areas than in rural areas

Suarez et al. 2007a [39]

Population-based case–control study in Texas, 1996–2000 USA

Specific defect

Neural tube defects

HWS and industrial site

Mother exposure defined as residence at delivery within 1 mile of state or NPL hazardous waste site or within 1 mile of industries with reported air emissions of chemicals

Maternal age, race/ethnicity, education, and maternal and paternal occupational exposures

Logistic regression used to calculate ORs

No excess risk noted for NTDs in offspring among women living near hazardous waste sites; however, close proximity to industrial facilities with chemical air emissions associated with NTDs in several subgroups

Brender et al. 2008a [33]

Population-based case–control study in Texas, 1996–2000

USA

Chromosomal anomalies (combined) and categorized into nine categories based on BPA codes

HWS and Industrial site

Mother exposure defined as residence at delivery within 1 mile of industries with reported air emissions of chemicals or residence at delivery within 1 mile of state or NPL hazardous waste site

Year of birth, Infant sex, public health region of maternal residence maternal age education and race/ethnicity

Unconditional logistic regression and exact logistic regression

Maternal residence within 1 mile of a hazardous any waste site or of an industrial facilities was not associated with chromosomal anomalies in offspring. However, results suggested some relation between residential proximity to specific type of industries and specific defects

Langlois et al. 2009a [13]

Population-based case–control study of Texas

1996–2000

USA

Conotruncal heart defects with and without chromosomal anomalies and truncus arteriosus, transposition of the great vessels, and tetralogy of Fallot separately

HWS and industrial site

Mother exposure defined as maternal address at delivery within 1 mile to hazardous waste sites and industrial facilities (Toxic Release Inventory (TRI))

Maternal age, race/ethnicity, education, maternal

and paternal occupation and employment industry

Logistic regression / exact logistic regression used to calculate ORs

Proximity to waste sites or industrial facilities not associated with conotruncal heart defects, while result noted truncus arteriosus associated with a maternal residence within 1 mile of any waste site and with NPL sites

Cohort studies

Dodds et al. 2001 [55]

Population-based cohort study

Nova Scotia, Canada

1988–1998

All anomalies combined

Specific defects

NDT, cardiovascular, Genito-urinary, Musculoskeletal, Ear, Eyes, Nose, Throat, Chromosomal

Birth outcome

LBW, PTB, intrauterine growth retardation (IUGR)

Hazardous waste site

Rates for malformations and other adverse pregnancy outcomes compared by maternal address at the time of delivery in Sydney (site of hazardous waste site), Nova Scotia, and Cape Breton County (excluding Sydney)

Maternal age, maternal smoking, parity

Logistic regression models

Small statistically significant increase in rate of major congenital malformations in community with a hazardous waste site

Dummer et al. 2003 [44]

Retrospective cohort study

Cumbria (northwest England), 1956–93

United Kingdom

Deaths from congenital anomaly (ICD 740–749):

(all NDT, CHD, other congenital anomalies)

Birth outcome

Stillbirth occurring (after 28 weeks gestation)

Neonatal death (within the first four weeks of life)

Incinerators

Crematoriums

Distances of maternal address at child’s birth from incinerators and crematoriums

Year of birth,

social class,

birth order,

multiple births yes/no

Multivariate logistic regression

Stratified by time period

Incinerators. The risk of stillbirth and neonatal death was not significantly increased closer to incinerators, but the risk of lethal congenital anomaly was significantly higher

Crematoriums. Increased risk of anencephaly, other congenital anomalies, and stillbirth closer to crematoriums

Dummer et al. 2003 [43]

Retrospective cohort study

Cumbria (northwest England), 1956–93

United Kingdom

Deaths from congenital anomaly (ICD 740–749):

(all NDT, CHD, other congenital anomalies)

Birth outcome

Stillbirth occurring (after 28 weeks gestation)

Neonatal death (within the first four weeks of life)

Industrial site

Distances of maternal address at child’s birth from industrial site

Year of birth, social class, birth order, multiple births yes/no

Multivariate logistic regression

Stratified by time period

There were no significantly increased risks for stillbirth or neonatal death in relation to proximity to industrial sites

The only significant result was an increased risk of deaths from congenital heart defects closer to industrial sites in the 1983–93-time period

Dummer et al. 2003a [42]

Retrospective cohort study

Cumbria (northwest England), 1956–93

United Kingdom

Deaths from congenital anomaly (ICD 740–749):

(all NDT, CHD, other congenital anomalies)

Birth outcome

Stillbirth occurring (after 28 weeks gestation)

Neonatal death (within the first four weeks of life)

Landfill site

Distances of zip code of maternal address at child’s birth from Landfill classified by the type of waste treated

Year of birth, social class, birth order, multiple births yes/no

Multivariate logistic regression

Stratified by time period

There was no increased risk of any other lethal adverse pregnancy outcome associated with residence near the landfills site. However, a small significantly increased risk of death from “Other congenital anomalies of nervous system” was found in children of mothers living near domestic waste landfill sites

Morgan et al. 2004 [50]

Retrospective cohort study of singleton live births in England, 1986–1999

United Kingdom

Low birth weight births

Landfill site

Mother’s exposure defined as residence at delivery within 3 km of a landfill; for all study areas pooled, defined 1-km distance bands with 6–7 km as baseline

Sex, quintiles of Carstairs deprivation index, year of birth

Logistic regression used to estimated odds ratios

A small and not statistical significant increase in LBW risk associated with a maternal residence near landfill sites in

England. Whereas a significant increase excess risk of congenital malformation associated with a maternal residence near the same sites

Tango et al. 2004 [56]

Retrospective cohort of

Japan (1997–98)

Infant, neonatal, and fetal deaths due to congenital malformations (all combined), sex ratio,

LBW: (<2500 g), VLBW (<1500 g),

Neonatal deaths (under four weeks of age), early neonatal deaths (under one week of age), Infant deaths (under 1 year of age),

Fetal deaths, spontaneous fetal deaths (after 12th week of gestation) spontaneous fetal deaths with CA

Incinerators

The study area was defined as circles of radius 10 km from the MSW incinerators

Area close to the MSW incinerator defined as to be 0–2 km

Maternal age,

Gestational age

Birth weight, total previous deliveries,

Past experience of fetal deaths, type of paternal occupation

Stone’s unconditional test and tango’s conditional test for decline in risk (O/E ratio) with distance from the incinerator.

P-values of these unconditional and conditional tests were calculated using 9999 Monte Carlo simulations

None of adverse reproductive outcomes showed statistically significant excess for all the zones

A statistically significant peak-decline in risk with distance from the incinerators up to 10 km was found for infant death and Infant death with all Congenital anomaly

A decline in risk with distance from the incinerators was observed for spontaneous fetal deaths with Congenital anomaly

Palmer et al. 2005 [46]

Population-based cohort in Wales 1983–1997

Great Britain

All Congenital anomalies

Specific defect

Chromosomal anomalies, cardiovascular defects, and abdominal wall defects

Landfill

Exposure defined as birth living within 2 km of the centroid of landfill sites, before and after opening of the sites, with referent group living at least 4 km away from these sites

Maternal age, hospital of birth, year of birth, deprivation, sex of baby

Expected rates were calculated from a logistic regression model

Increased risk of congenital anomalies after the opening of landfill sites from 1983–1997 but increase did not persist during 1998–2000

Gilbreath et al. 2006 [29]

Retrospective cohort study

Alaska Native villages, 1997–2001

LBW (>1500 to <2500)

VLBW (<1500 g),

PTB (<37 weeks)

IUGR (at least 37 weeks’ gestation and <2500 g

Dumpsites

Hazard ranking of the dumpsite of the village that was indicated on the birth certificate

Residence in villages with open low, intermediate and high hazard dumpsites 

Gender, interpregnancy interval, parity, adequacy of prenatal care, smoking status, alcohol intake, race, mother’s age and education, health care options, piped water, and missing values

Logistic regression

Infants from mothers in villages with intermediate and high hazard dumpsites had a higher proportion of LBW and suffered from intrauterine growth retardation Slighty reduced risks for preterm birth in mothers from intermediate hazard villages

Gilbreath and Kass 2006 [36]

retrospective cohort study of live births and fetal deaths

Alaska Native villages,

1997–2001

USA

Fetal deaths (>20 weeks of gestation), Neonatal deaths

Specific defects

Congenital anomalies grouped into five categories including central nervous system, circulatory and respiratory, gastrointestinal, urogenital, and musculoskeletal or integumentary defects

Dumpsites

Hazard ranking of the dumpsite of the village that was indicated on the birth certificate

Mother’s exposure defined as residence in villages with open low, intermediate and high hazard dumpsites

Gender, interpregnancy interval, parity, adequacy of prenatal care, smoking status, alcohol intake, race, mother’s

age and education, healthcare options, piped water

Poisson regression used to model the natural log of the incidence rates

No significant excess risk was found for fetal deaths, neonatal deaths, or congenital anomalies with a maternal residence in Alaska Native villages with higher hazard dumpsites; except for one group of congenital anomaly

  1. aAuthors study specific sites classified by either substance class or reported air emissions of chemicals, or types of contaminants present and media contaminated or with respect to human exposure potential, or contaminated environmental media, and chemical contaminants present