Table 1 Characteristics of included articles
First author (date) | Location | Study design (year of data collection) | Sample size (RF %) | Dietary outcome | Dietary assessment method | Food outlet | Food outlet classification | Food outlet data source | Geographic unit | Spatial exposure measure | Statistical analyses (adjustment variables) | Number of relationships | Number of associations | Study quality (%) |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Athens (2016) [38] | Philadelphia and Baltimore, US | Cross-sectional, random digit dial (2009–2010) | 1598 (11) | FF m/w | FFQ | FF S | Standard Industrial Classification codes, annual gross sales | Info USA 2011 | Nearest intersection to participant’s home address | Count Presence Proximity | Negative binomial regression (time period, sex, race, age, education, census tract poverty level and population density) | 2 | 14 | 65 |
Bodor (2008) [42] | New Orleans, US | Cross-sectional, Random digit dial (2001) | 102 (50) | F s/d V s/d | 24-h recall | S SS | Louisiana Office of Public Health annual gross sales codes | Louisiana Office of Public Health 2001, ground-truth validation 2001 | Participant’s home address | Presence Proximity | Multivariable linear regression (sex, ethnicity, age, income, food assistance participation, car ownership) | 4 | 8 | 75 |
Dunn (2012) [43] | Texas, US | Cross-sectional, Random digit dial, Brazos Valley Health Community Assessment, BVHA, rural, < 75 years (2006) | 1064 (73.8) | FF m/w | FFQ | FF | Own criteria based on service style | Brazos Valley Food Environment Project (BVFEP) comprehensive ground-truth survey 2006 | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity | Ordered logistic regression (census tract fixed effects (not stated), instrumental variable (IV) of shortest distance to major roadway) | 1 | 3 | 94 |
Layte (2011) [44] | Ireland | Cross-sectional, Irish Survey of Lifestyle Attitudes and Nutrition, SLAN (2007) | 7501 (72) | DASH score | Validated Willett FFQ | S CS | NR | NR | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity (Euclidean and network distance) | Fixed effects, ordinary least squares regression of participants with outlet within 2 km of home (sex, age, marital status, education, household income, population density, car ownership) | 2 | 9 | 50 |
Minaker (2013) [45] | Ontario, Canada | Cross-sectional, neighbourhood environments in Waterloo Region Patterns of Transportation and Health, NEWPATH, women only (2009–2010) | 1170 (64) | HEI-C | 2-d food diary | R FS CS + S | Own criteria, NR | Local Public Health Inspection Database 2010, ground-truth survey 2010 | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity Diversity RFEI | Multilevel linear regression (age, education, household income, car ownership, perceptions of food access and affordability) | 3 | 6 | 81 |
Sharkey (2011) [46] | Texas, US | Cross-sectional, random digit dial Brazos Valley Health Community Assessment, BVHA, rural (2006) | 1409 (73.8) | FF m/w | FFQ | TFF NFF TFF + NFF | Own criteria based on service style and place of consumption | Brazos Valley Food Environment Project (BVFEP) comprehensive ground-truth survey 2006 | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity | Multivariable linear regression (sex, age, household income, race, BMI, household size, employment status) | 3 | 12 | 94 |
Thornton (2012) [23] | Glasgow, UK | Cross-sectional, health and wellbeing survey, HWB (2002) | 1041 (67) | FV s/d F s/d V s/d | FFQ | S | Six chain supermarket: Asda, the Co-op, Morrisons, Sainsbury’s, Somerfield, Tesco | Online yellow pages and company websites 2010, validated via street view and local knowledge | Participants’ post code | Count (Euclidean and network buffer) Presence (Euclidean and network buffer) Proximity Euclidean kernel density estimation | Multilevel linear regression (sex, age, education) | 3 | 69 | 54 |
Thornton (2009) [47] | Melbourne, Australia | Cross-sectional, Victorian Lifestyle and Neighbourhood Environment Study, VicLANES (2003) | 2547 (64) | FF purchase m/m Weekly Monthly | FFQ | FF | Five FF chains: Red Rooster, McDonalds, Kentucky Fried Chicken, Hungry Jacks, Pizza Hut | White pages phone directory 2003–2004 | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity Variety | Multilevel multinomial regression (age, country of birth, household composition, education, occupation, income, attitudes and perceptions relating to food access; preference: taste and health, area-level disadvantage) | 2 | 6 | 69 |
Turrell (2008) [48] | Brisbane, Australia | Cross-sectional, Brisbane Food Study (2000) | 1001 (66.4) | TA purchase m/m | FFQ | FFF ITA ATA OTA C HTA STA | Own criteria based on preparation, service/sale method and main type of food sold | Brisbane City Council maps 2000, ground-truth survey 2000 | Census Collection Districts | Proximity Average proximity Density | Ordered multinomial regression (sex, age, family size, country of birth) | 7 | 21 | 69 |
Williams (2010) [49] | Melbourne, Australia | Cross-sectional, socioeconomic status and activity in women, SESAW (2004) | 351 (58) | F s/d V s/d | FFQ | S FVS | Own criteria NR, supermarkets included major and minor chains, independent and small grocers | Local government and company websites, databases and online phone directories | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity | Logistic regression bivariate associations | 4 | 8 | 48 |
Zenk (2009) [50] | Detroit, US | Cross-sectional, ≥ 25 years (2002–2003) | 919 (55) | FV mean s/d | Semi-quantitative FFQ | S + GS | Own criteria NR, full-service chain grocery stores or super centres | Michigan Department of Agriculture 2001, paper/online telephone directories, company websites 2001–2002, ground-truth survey 2002 | Census blocks | Presence Proximity | Two level hierarchical linear regression (sex, age, household size, years in neighbourhood, marital status, race, education, income, employment, car ownership) | 1 | 2 | 67 |
LeDoux (2014) [41] | Detroit, US | Cross-sectional, low income African American neighbourhood, (NR) | 258 (10.3) | FV s/m Soda and juice s/m Sweet and salty snacks s/m | FFQ | S CS FF | Own criteria clearly reported | Michigan Department of Agriculture, Detroit Economic Group, phone and internet directories, date NR | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity | Negative binomial regression (sex, age, education, household income, exercise) | 9 | 27 | 44 |
Bernsdorf (2017) [39] | Copenhagen, Denmark | Cross-sectional, Danish Capital Regional Health Survey (2010) | 48,305 (52.3) | FF ≥ once/w | FFQ | FF | Danish industrial classification system DB03, Own criteria clearly reported | Ministry of Environment and Food Register, ground-truth survey 2010 | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity | Multilevel logistic regression (sex, age ethnicity, education, urbanicity, area SES) | 1 | 8 | 77 |
Duran (2016) [40] | Sao Paulo, Brazil | Cross-sectional, (2011) | 1842 (NR) | FV ≥ 5 d/w SSD ≥ 5 d/w | FFQ, validated | S + GS + FVS | Own criteria clearly reported | Ground-truth survey 2010–2011 | Participant’s home address | Count Proximity | Poisson generalised estimating equations (sex, age, education, income) | 2 | 12 | 75 |